Table of Contents
Overview
Definition and Characteristics
Dark matter is a form of matter that constitutes approximately 27% of the universe, yet remains entirely invisible and undetectable by conventional means, as it does not emit, absorb, or reflect light.[8.1] Its existence is inferred from its gravitational effects on visible matter, such as stars, dust, and gas, which it helps to bind together within galaxies.[8.1] This invisible substance is believed to account for roughly 80% of the total mass of the universe, indicating its significant role in cosmic structure and dynamics.[7.1] Theoretical candidates for dark matter include Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) and axions, each with distinct properties and interactions with ordinary matter. WIMPs, if they exist, are predicted to be five times more abundant than normal matter, aligning with the observed abundance of dark matter.[16.1] On the other hand, axions are characterized as low-mass, slow-moving particles that possess no charge and interact weakly with other forms of matter, making them particularly challenging to detect.[16.1] These characteristics highlight the complexity and mystery surrounding dark matter, as its true nature remains one of the most significant unsolved problems in astrophysics.Importance in Cosmology
Dark matter plays a crucial role in modern cosmology, constituting approximately 30.1 percent of the universe's matter-energy composition, alongside dark energy and ordinary matter.[4.1] Its significance emerged in the early 20th century, particularly through the pioneering work of Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky, who, in 1933, first inferred the existence of dark matter by observing the Coma cluster of galaxies. He noted that the visible mass of stars was insufficient to account for the gravitational forces needed to keep the galaxies bound within the cluster, leading him to propose the concept of "missing mass".[9.1] The acceptance of dark matter as a fundamental component of the universe has evolved over time, with many astronomers by the 1980s convinced of its existence around galaxies and clusters.[2.1] Despite the lack of direct detection, dark matter remains integral to the standard model of cosmology, influencing our understanding of galaxy formation and the large-scale structure of the universe.[6.1] Observations of galaxy rotation curves and the dynamics of galaxy clusters have further solidified the necessity of dark matter in explaining gravitational phenomena that cannot be accounted for by visible matter alone.[5.1] The theoretical framework surrounding dark matter includes several leading candidates, among which weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) and axions are prominent. WIMPs are considered a primary candidate for dark matter due to their weak interactions with ordinary matter, making them challenging to detect.[14.1] In contrast, axions are characterized as low-mass, slow-moving particles that also interact weakly with other matter, which complicates their detection as well.[15.1] Notably, only axions of a specific mass could account for the invisible nature of dark matter; if they were lighter or heavier, they would be detectable.[15.1] Thus, both WIMPs and axions play crucial roles in advancing our understanding of the universe's composition and evolution, highlighting their significance in cosmological models and ongoing research in astrophysics and particle physics.History
Early Speculations and Discoveries
The concept of dark matter emerged from early astronomical observations, particularly those made by Swiss American astronomer Fritz Zwicky in 1933. While examining the Coma cluster of galaxies, Zwicky discovered that the mass of the stars accounted for only about 1 percent of the mass required to prevent the galaxies from escaping the cluster's gravitational pull. This discrepancy led him to propose the idea of "missing mass," which we now understand as dark matter, a component that constitutes approximately 30.1 percent of the universe's matter-energy composition.[48.1] The existence of dark matter is inferred from its gravitational effects rather than its luminosity, as it does not emit light detectable by current instruments. Despite extensive research, no definitive trace of dark matter has yet been found, although ongoing investigations continue to shape the astronomical community's understanding of this elusive substance.[67.1] The acceptance of dark matter as a legitimate component of the universe was slow, taking nearly four decades after Zwicky's initial discovery for the scientific community to embrace the concept fully. This delay was influenced by skepticism from prominent astronomers, including Geoffrey and Margaret Burbidge, who played a role in hindering the acceptance of dark matter theories.[66.1] However, the landscape began to change in the 1970s when Vera Rubin and Kent Ford conducted detailed studies of galaxy rotation curves, revealing that spiral galaxies exhibited flat rotation curves. This observation suggested that the mass of galaxies extended far beyond what was visible, providing further evidence for dark matter.[67.1] The rise of precision cosmology in the 1990s solidified the understanding that dark matter, rather than alternative theories such as Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), was responsible for various astronomical phenomena.[49.1] Despite the lack of direct detection of dark matter particles in experiments, its gravitational effects have been pivotal in shaping our understanding of galaxy formation and the overall structure of the universe, with dark matter constituting approximately 85 percent of the universe's matter.[57.1] The ongoing research into dark matter has not only revolutionized astrophysics but has also spawned entire subfields dedicated to exploring its properties and implications.[59.1]Fritz Zwicky's Contributions
Fritz Zwicky, a Swiss American astronomer, was instrumental in the discovery of dark matter, a fundamental component of the universe. In 1933, Zwicky observed that the mass of all the stars in the Coma cluster of galaxies accounted for only about 1 percent of the mass required to prevent the galaxies from escaping the cluster's gravitational pull. This led him to propose the existence of an unobserved type of mass, which he termed "dunkle Materie" or dark matter, initially referred to as the "missing mass" [48.1]. Dark matter is now understood to constitute approximately 30.1 percent of the total matter-energy composition of the universe, alongside dark energy, which makes up 69.4 percent, and ordinary visible matter, which comprises only 0.5 percent [48.1]. Although Zwicky's pioneering work laid the foundation for future research in this critical area of astrophysics, the concept faced skepticism during his lifetime and gained significant recognition only after his death in 1974 [48.1], [48.1], [48.1].In this section:
Theoretical Framework
Dark Matter Models
The theoretical framework of dark matter encompasses various models that aim to explain its nature and influence on the universe. One prominent approach is the multi-component framework, which posits that dark matter consists of a vast ensemble of interacting fields with diverse masses, mixings, and abundances, rather than relying on a single stable particle model.[90.1] This perspective allows for a more comprehensive understanding of dark matter's role in cosmic dynamics. In addition to the multi-component framework, the Lambda-CDM model, or Lambda cold dark matter model, serves as a foundational cosmological model that integrates both dark energy and cold dark matter. This model effectively describes the universe's evolution and structure, explaining the observed properties of the universe on large scales and accounting for the accelerated expansion observed through distant supernovae.[102.1] The Lambda-CDM model has become a cornerstone in cosmology, providing insights into the interplay between dark energy and dark matter. Furthermore, the cold dark matter (CDM) paradigm is instrumental in interpreting the influences of dark matter on galaxy formation. It has been shown that dark matter significantly affects the structure and dynamics of galaxies, with its gravitational influence being a primary driver of galaxy formation and evolution.[98.1] Observational evidence supports these theories, as the distribution of non-luminous matter in galaxies aligns with predictions made by dark matter models, reinforcing the existence of dark particles that govern cosmic structures.[99.1] The development of mathematical models has also played a crucial role in advancing our understanding of dark matter. These models bridge observable phenomena with theoretical predictions, facilitating the study of dark matter's distribution and its impact on the cosmic web.[101.1] Key advancements, such as the introduction of numerical methods for predicting the non-linear evolution of cold dark matter, have ushered in a new era of hierarchical cosmology, enhancing our comprehension of the universe's structure.[103.1] Overall, the evolution of dark matter models reflects a dynamic interplay between theoretical innovation and observational validation, shaping the ongoing discourse in astrophysics.In this section:
Detection Methods
Gravitational Effects
Gravitational lensing provides compelling evidence for the existence of dark matter, as it demonstrates how massive objects can bend light from more distant sources. Recent studies have shown that gravitational lensing of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) occurs due to the influence of dark matter halos, with significant findings derived from the Atacama Cosmology Telescope Polarimeter (ACTPol) that analyzed lensing convergence maps at the positions of approximately 12,000 optically selected CMASS galaxies from the SDSS-III/BOSS survey.[132.1] This lensing effect is crucial in understanding the distribution and properties of dark matter in the universe. The CMB itself serves as a vital source of information regarding dark matter, as it represents the remnant radiation from the early universe. Measurements of anisotropies in the CMB provide further evidence supporting the theory that dark matter constitutes a significant portion of the universe's total mass-energy content.[134.1] The CMB's characteristics, shaped by the gravitational influence of dark matter, allow researchers to infer the presence and distribution of this elusive component of the cosmos. Moreover, the combination of data from gravitational lensing and CMB observations enhances the understanding of dark matter's role in cosmic evolution. For instance, the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) collaboration has integrated data from 15 million galaxies with preexisting observations of supernovae and CMB remnants. This comprehensive approach has revealed deviations from the standard Lambda-CDM model, suggesting an evolution in dark energy that may be linked to dark matter dynamics.[135.1]Experimental Approaches
Experimental approaches to dark matter detection can be categorized into direct and indirect detection methods, each employing distinct techniques to uncover the elusive nature of dark matter. Direct detection experiments seek to observe the interaction of dark matter particles of cosmic origin with target materials in detectors typically located in the very clean, low-background environments provided by underground laboratories such as SNOLAB.[130.1] These experiments aim to identify nuclear recoils (NRs) resulting from dark matter interactions, employing advanced detectors that utilize innovative techniques to positively identify dark matter signals and suppress background noise.[129.1] Recent advancements in dark matter detection technology have significantly improved the sensitivity of these detectors, enabling the probing of lower mass dark matter particles.[147.1] This is particularly relevant given the rise in popularity of dark matter models predicting sub-GeV dark matter particles, which could evade detection in most active searches based on nuclear-recoil signals.[144.1] For instance, the SIMP model suggests a preferred dark matter mass range of 1 MeV < m χ < 1 GeV, highlighting the need for technologies capable of accessing this sub-GeV mass range.[144.1] In contrast, indirect detection methods concentrate on identifying the byproducts of dark matter interactions, such as gamma rays or standard model particle-antiparticle pairs resulting from dark matter annihilation or decay.[150.1] This approach is particularly effective in high-density regions of the universe, such as the Galactic Center, where the signal-to-background ratio can be improved through targeted searches.[127.1] Techniques employed in indirect detection include the analysis of gamma rays and cosmic rays, which can provide insights into the intrinsic properties of dark matter.[131.1] Recent innovations in detection methodologies have also included the use of advanced machine learning models to enhance the capabilities of liquid xenon time projection chamber experiments, thereby improving the identification of potential dark matter signals.[145.1] Additionally, researchers are exploring quantum devices that may be tuned to detect thermalized dark matter, representing a novel frontier in dark matter research.[146.1]In this section:
Recent Advancements
Current Research Findings
Recent advancements in dark matter research have yielded significant findings that enhance our understanding of this elusive component of the universe. A notable development is the LUX-ZEPLIN Dark Matter Experiment (LZ), which has provided unprecedented insights into weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), a leading candidate for dark matter. The experiment's findings, presented at major conferences in 2024, indicate that WIMPs interact very rarely with ordinary matter, underscoring the challenges in detecting dark matter.[171.1] Additionally, a research team from Tokyo Metropolitan University has made strides in the search for dark matter by employing advanced spectrographic technology. Their observations using the Magellan Clay Telescope have set new limits on the lifetime of dark matter particles, achieved with only four hours of data collection.[174.1] This research not only contributes to the understanding of dark matter's properties but also highlights the importance of technological innovations in this field.[167.1] Recent advancements in dark matter research have revealed the intricate connections between cosmic phenomena and broader scientific inquiries. Notably, collaborations between institutions, such as the University of Tokyo and the Laboratory of Infrared High-resolution Spectroscopy at Kyoto Sangyo University, underscore the spirit of collective effort in this field.[170.1] A significant breakthrough involves the application of artificial intelligence (AI) to dark matter exploration, particularly through AI-based approaches like the Inception model. These methods are poised to significantly enhance our understanding of dark matter, which constitutes approximately 85% of the universe's mass, by analyzing unprecedented amounts of data gathered from new telescopes, such as Euclid.[177.1] Researchers anticipate that this influx of data will empower scientists to further dissect the fundamental nature of dark matter and may lead to refinements or radical changes in existing cosmological models.[176.1] Recent observations from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) have also challenged existing theories regarding dark matter's role in galaxy formation. Contrary to expectations that dark matter would significantly influence the size and brightness of early galaxies, JWST has revealed that some of the oldest galaxies are larger and brighter than previously thought, aligning more closely with predictions from modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) rather than dark matter theory.[178.1] These findings collectively illustrate the dynamic nature of dark matter research, emphasizing the need for continued exploration and collaboration across various scientific disciplines to unravel the mysteries surrounding this fundamental aspect of the universe.Future Directions in Dark Matter Studies
Future research in dark matter studies is increasingly focused on both the direct detection of Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) and the exploration of alternative theories such as Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND). Direct detection methods for WIMPs, which are among the leading candidates for dark matter, primarily involve measuring the recoil energy deposited in low-background laboratory detectors due to elastic WIMP-nucleus scattering. This approach aims to address the challenges of identifying WIMPs by utilizing ultra-sensitive detectors located in underground laboratories, which help achieve the stringent low-background requirements necessary for accurate measurements.[184.1] Recent experimental results from the LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) project have shown promising limits on interaction rates of WIMPs, indicating that this initiative will significantly enhance our understanding of dark matter.[183.1] The advancements in detection technology and methodologies are expected to increase sensitivity and detection limits, thereby providing deeper insights into the nature of dark matter.[183.1] In recent years, Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), proposed by Moti Milgrom, has emerged as a significant alternative to traditional particle-based models of dark matter. MOND addresses the missing mass problem in extragalactic astronomy by suggesting a subtle modification to the effective force law at extremely low accelerations, rather than relying on an invisible form of dark matter.[190.1] This theory has been successful in explaining the dynamics of disc galaxies across various scales, although it has encountered difficulties when applied to galaxy clusters.[188.1] The latest findings from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) have further complicated the dark matter narrative, indicating that gravity may operate differently than previously understood. Observations of ancient galaxies challenge the conventional dark matter model, suggesting that galaxies could form and evolve without the gravitational influence of dark matter if MOND can adequately account for these phenomena.[189.1] If validated, MOND could fundamentally reshape our understanding of galaxy formation and evolution, potentially negating the necessity for dark matter in cosmological models.[189.1] As research progresses, the interplay between direct detection efforts and alternative theoretical frameworks will be crucial in shaping the future directions of dark matter studies. The ongoing exploration of both avenues promises to deepen our understanding of the universe's structure and the fundamental forces at play.In this section:
Technological InnovationsSpectroscopyArtificial IntelligenceDetection LimitsExtragalactic Astronomy
Implications For The Universe
Role in Galaxy Formation
Dark matter plays a crucial role in the formation and evolution of galaxies, acting as a fundamental component that influences their structure and dynamics. It exerts a dominant gravitational force, which is essential for the attraction of normal matter, such as hydrogen and other gases, leading to the formation of dark matter halos around galaxies.[214.1] These halos are critical in shaping the distribution of visible matter and regulating star formation rates within galaxies.[215.1] The interactions between dark matter and dark energy further complicate our understanding of galaxy formation. While dark matter drives the gravitational effects necessary for cosmic structure formation, dark energy is responsible for the accelerated expansion of the universe. This interplay challenges conventional models, such as the ΛCDM model, and suggests that the dynamics of galaxy formation may be influenced by the interactions between these two mysterious components.[216.1] Observational data, including measurements from the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and Large-Scale Structure (LSS), provide insights into the distribution of dark matter and its effects on galaxy formation.[216.1] Numerical simulations have become an essential tool in cosmology to study the impact of dark matter on galaxy formation. These simulations help researchers understand and predict the evolution of large-scale structures in the universe, including galaxies and galaxy clusters.[215.1] They reveal that the presence of dark matter significantly alters the evolutionary paths of galaxies, as evidenced by the differences in stellar populations observed in galaxies with varying amounts of dark matter in their halos.[218.1] Moreover, dark matter contributes to the stability of galaxies by regulating energy distribution from various processes, thereby preventing chaotic behavior within these systems.[220.1] The gravitational influence of dark matter is so profound that it is estimated to outweigh visible matter by a ratio of approximately six to one, constituting about 27% of the universe's total mass.[234.1] This substantial presence underscores the importance of dark matter in shaping not only individual galaxies but also the overall structure of the universe.Influence on Cosmic Structure
Dark matter plays a pivotal role in the formation and structure of the universe, comprising approximately 27% of the universe's mass-energy content.[221.1] Its existence is inferred primarily through its gravitational effects, which influence the motion of galaxies and galaxy clusters. For instance, the observed rotational speeds of galaxies cannot be explained solely by the gravitational pull of visible matter; dark matter is essential for maintaining the gravitational cohesion of these structures.[225.1] The concept of dark matter was first introduced by Swiss-American astronomer Fritz Zwicky in 1933, who noted that the mass of stars in the Coma cluster was insufficient to prevent the galaxies from escaping the cluster's gravitational pull.[212.1] This observation highlighted the necessity of an unseen form of matter that exerts gravitational influence, leading to the term "missing mass".[210.1] In the context of cosmic structure, dark matter acts as an invisible glue that holds galaxies, stars, dust, and gas together, shaping the large-scale structure of the cosmos.[225.1] Its gravitational effects extend beyond individual galaxies, influencing the distribution and behavior of galaxy clusters across the universe.[213.1] As scientists continue to study dark matter, they aim to uncover its properties and distribution, which could provide deeper insights into the fundamental workings of the universe.[224.1] Understanding dark matter is crucial for cosmology, as it not only aids in explaining the current structure of the universe but also plays a significant role in its evolution.[222.1] The ongoing research into dark matter's nature and its implications for cosmic structure remains one of the most exciting frontiers in modern astrophysics.In this section:
References
[2] PDF — 1980 - Most astronomers are convinced that dark matter exists around galaxies and clusters Early History of Dark Matter 1 Virginia Trimble, in D. Cline, ed., Sources of Dark Matter in the Universe (World Scientific, 1994). 2 S. M. Faber and J. S. Gallagher 1979, ARAA 17, 135 1922 - Kapteyn: "dark matter" in Milky Way disk1 1933 - Zwicky: "dunkle (kalte) materie" in Coma cluster
[4] Dark matter | Definition, Discovery, Distribution, & Facts | Britannica — Dark matter is a component of the universe whose presence is discerned from its gravitational attraction rather than its luminosity. Dark matter makes up 30.1 percent of the matter-energy composition of the universe. Dark matter’s existence was first inferred by Swiss American astronomer Fritz Zwicky, who in 1933 discovered that the mass of all the stars in the Coma cluster of galaxies provided only about 1 percent of the mass needed to keep the galaxies from escaping the cluster’s gravitational pull. Dark matter makes up 30.1 percent of the matter-energy composition of the universe; the rest is dark energy (69.4 percent) and “ordinary” visible matter (0.5 percent). Originally known as the “missing mass,” dark matter’s existence was first inferred by Swiss American astronomer Fritz Zwicky, who in 1933 discovered that the mass of all the stars in the Coma cluster of galaxies provided only about 1 percent of the mass needed to keep the galaxies from escaping the cluster’s gravitational pull.
[5] History of dark matter | Rev. Mod. Phys. - Physical Review Link Manager — The standard model of modern cosmology is unthinkable without dark matter, although direct detections are still missing. A broad perspective of how dark matter was postulated and became accepted is presented, from prehistory, over observations of galaxy clusters, galaxy rotation curves, the search for baryonic dark matter, possible alternative explanations via modified gravity, up to the hunt
[6] Dark matter - Wikipedia — (more unsolved problems in physics) Part of a series on Physical cosmology Big Bang · Universe Age of the universe Chronology of the universe Early universe Expansion · Future Components · Structure Components Dark energy · Dark matter Photons · Baryons Structure Shape of the universe Galaxy filament · Galaxy formation Large quasar group Large-scale structure Reionization · Structure formation Experiments Scientists Subject history Category Astronomy portal vte In astronomy, dark matter is an invisible and hypothetical form of matter that does not interact with light or other electromagnetic radiation. Dark matter is implied by gravitational effects which cannot be explained by general relativity unless more matter is present than can be observed. In the standard Lambda-CDM model of cosmology, the mass–energy content of the universe is 5% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter, and 68.2% a form of energy known as dark energy. Dark matter is not known to interact with ordinary baryonic matter and radiation except through gravity, making it difficult to detect in the laboratory.
[7] What is dark matter? | Space — References By Nola Taylor Tillman Contributions from Tereza Pultarova last updated 6 August 2024 Dark matter is the mysterious stuff that fills the universe but no one has ever seen. Roughly 80% of the mass of the universe is made up of dark matter but what is it? Its existence is inferred because, without it, the behavior of stars, planets, and galaxies would be inexplicable. Dark matter is entirely invisible, emitting no light or energy, making it undetectable by conventional sensors and detectors. Most scientists think that dark matter consists of non-baryonic matter.
[8] What Is Dark Matter? | NASA Space Place - NASA Science for Kids — The Short Answer: Dark matter is stuff in space that has gravity, but it is invisible and isn’t like anything else we know about. Dark matter makes up about 27% of the universe. That something is dark matter. Dark matter is that invisible glue that keeps stars, dust, and gas together in a galaxy. Because dark matter does not emit, absorb, or reflect light, we mostly know it is there because of its gravitational pull on visible matter in space.
[9] A162, Lecture 26 - Ohio State University — In 1933, Fritz Zwicky measured redshifts of galaxies in the Coma galaxy cluster and found large peculiar velocities (about 1000 km/s). He argued that the gravity of the observed stars in the cluster was insufficient to hold it together, and that there must therefore be additional gravity from dark matter (Zwicky called it ``missing mass'').
[14] What is Dark Matter Made Of? These Are the Top Candidates — The XENON1T experiment in Italy aimed to detect the leading candidate for dark matter: weakly interacting massive particles, or WIMPs. ... Washington cool a cylinder to nearly absolute zero before it emits a strong magnetic field, which should transform the theoretical dark matter particles into radio waves. (Credit: Rakshya Khatiwanda
[15] Here Are The Top Five Candidates For 'Dark Matter' - ScienceAlert — 2. The axion. Axions are low-mass, slow-moving particles that don't have a charge and only interact weakly with other matter which makes them difficult - but not impossible - to detect. Only axions of a specific mass would be able to explain the invisible nature of dark matter - if they are any lighter or heavier we would be able to see them.
[16] Here Are The Top Five Candidates For 'Dark Matter' - ScienceAlert — There are four fundamental forces that a dark matter particle could interact with. If WIMPs exist, mathematical modelling shows there must be about five times more of these than normal matter, which coincides with the abundance of dark matter that we observe in the Universe. Axions are low-mass, slow-moving particles that don't have a charge and only interact weakly with other matter which makes them difficult – but not impossible – to detect. This theory, a precursor to string theory, predicts the existence of a particle that could be a dark matter particle, which would have the same mass as 550 to 650 protons (these make up the atomic nucleus together with neutrons).
[48] Dark matter | Definition, Discovery, Distribution, & Facts | Britannica — Dark matter is a component of the universe whose presence is discerned from its gravitational attraction rather than its luminosity. Dark matter makes up 30.1 percent of the matter-energy composition of the universe. Dark matter’s existence was first inferred by Swiss American astronomer Fritz Zwicky, who in 1933 discovered that the mass of all the stars in the Coma cluster of galaxies provided only about 1 percent of the mass needed to keep the galaxies from escaping the cluster’s gravitational pull. Dark matter makes up 30.1 percent of the matter-energy composition of the universe; the rest is dark energy (69.4 percent) and “ordinary” visible matter (0.5 percent). Originally known as the “missing mass,” dark matter’s existence was first inferred by Swiss American astronomer Fritz Zwicky, who in 1933 discovered that the mass of all the stars in the Coma cluster of galaxies provided only about 1 percent of the mass needed to keep the galaxies from escaping the cluster’s gravitational pull.
[49] A history of dark matter - Ars Technica — A history of dark matter - Ars Technica She told Ars that the rise of precision cosmology in the 1990s helped cement ideas that dark matter, rather than MOND, was responsible for some of the unusual data scientists had discovered. “I think this goes to the point,” Bullock told Ars, “we really need to be open-minded and need to take stock of the fact that this is what we know, this is all the data we have, and there is nothing about the data that we have that says dark matter has to be a single particle that is a WIMP…the question is, 'is there something more? New ideas on gravity predict rotation curves of galaxies without dark matter.
[57] Dark Matter Experiments: The Search for Hidden Mass — Some dark matter experiments like DAMA/LIBRA reached a high detection level, but others like ANAIS have questioned these findings. So, there is always a counterargument to a positive detection one way or another. Dark matter makes up 85% of the universe's matter. It greatly affects how galaxies form and the universe's structure.
[59] How Vera Rubin discovered dark matter - Astronomy Magazine — Emily Levesque, an astronomer at the University of Washington in Seattle who has spoken out about Rubin’s notable lack of a Nobel, says, “The existence of dark matter has utterly revolutionized our concept of the universe and our entire field; the ongoing effort to understand the role of dark matter has basically spawned entire subfields within astrophysics and particle physics at this point. “People had inferred what galaxy rotations must be like,” said Rubin, “but no one had really made a detailed study to show that that was so.” Now, because of Ford’s out-of-this-world spectrograph, they could turn the inferences into observations. And because no one had predicted what dark matter’s existence might mean for galaxy dynamics, Rubin and Ford initially didn’t recognize the meaning of their flat rotation curves.
[66] PDF — The first evidence for dark matter came in the 1930s, yet it took astronomers four decades to come . to accept the reality of dark matter. Geoffrey and Margaret Burbidge played a key role in slowing the acceptance of dark matter. Therein lies a cautionary tale for scientists, including recent creationists. Keywords: galaxies, rotation curves
[67] Accepting Massive Problems: A Scientonomic History of Dark Matter ... — Accepting Massive Problems: A Scientonomic History of Dark Matter | Scientonomy: Journal for the Science of Science theory acceptance, anomaly, dark matter, flat rotation curves, high mass-to-light ratios, Western astronomy community By applying the framework of theoretical scientonomy, I trace the acceptance of two anomalous phenomena: the high mass-to-light ratio observed in galactic clusters, first documented by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in 1933, and the flat rotation curves of galaxies first observed by American astronomers Vera Rubin and Kent Ford in 1970. J. (1984). Formation of Galaxies and Large-Scale Structure with Cold Dark Matter. D. M. M. (1959). M. (1987). (2019), pp. J. (1970). J. E. pp. Astronomy and Astrophysics 26, pp. History of Dark Matter in Galaxies. J. (1970).
[90] PDF — In this paper, we propose a new framework for dark-matter physics. Rather than focus on one or more stable dark-matter particles, we instead consider a multi-component framework in which the dark matter of the universe comprises a vast ensemble of interacting fields with a variety of different masses, mixings, and abundances.
[98] PDF — Fortunately, dark matter possesses gravity, being one of the primary sources of gravitational force in the universe, significantly influencing the structure and dynamical behavior of celestial systems like galaxies and galaxy clusters. Through merging and accretion, dark matter halos grow and accumulate mass, thereby influencing star formation rates, gas distribution, and the dynamical states within galaxies. 5.1 Simulations and Modeling The numerical simulation of galaxy formation using dark matter is an important field in cosmology, which relies on complex computer simulations to understand and predict the formation and evolution of large-scale structures in the universe, such as galaxies, galaxy clusters, etc.
[99] Dark Matter and Its Crucial Role in Galaxy Formation — These patterns can only be explained by the influence of dark matter during the early universe. 3. Large Scale Structure. The distribution of galaxies across the universe follows a pattern. This pattern aligns with the dark matter model. It further validates the model's role in galaxy formation. Interaction Between Dark Matter and Visible Matter
[101] Modeling the distribution of dark matter and its connection to galaxies — Hence, mathematical models that bridge the observable and the calculable are essential for the study of modern cosmology. The aim of my thesis work is to improve existing models and also to construct new models for various aspects of the dark matter distribution, as dark matter structures the cosmic web and forms the nests of visible galaxies.
[102] Lambda-CDM Model - Definition & Detailed Explanation - Sentinel Mission — The Lambda-CDM model, also known as the Lambda cold dark matter model, is a cosmological model that describes the evolution and structure of the universe. The Lambda-CDM model incorporates both dark energy and cold dark matter to explain the observed properties of the universe on large scales. The Lambda-CDM model explains the expansion of the universe through a combination of dark energy and dark matter. Additionally, the discovery of the accelerated expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae provides strong evidence for the existence of dark energy and the need for a cosmological constant in the Lambda-CDM model. The Lambda-CDM model provides a framework for understanding the roles of dark energy and dark matter in shaping the evolution of the universe.
[103] Large-scale structure with cold dark matter | Nature Astronomy — A pair of seminal papers developed key numerical methods and made the first predictions for the non-linear evolution of cold dark matter, ushering in the era of hierarchical cosmology and modern
[127] Direct Detection of Dark Matter - an overview - ScienceDirect — In other words, with better astrophysical modeling of dark matter, we sharpen measurements of Λ − 1 with direct and indirect detection methods. Indirect detection searches for dark matter annihilation or decay in the Universe today can improve signal over background by targeting high-density regions — be it the Galactic Center [441-456
[129] Dark Matter Hub - Interactions — The detectors of the DarkSide program will use several innovative techniques to positively identify dark matter signals and to understand and suppress backgrounds. ... The detector will be sensitive to dark matter interactions as low as to 10-46 cm 2 per nucleon for a WIMP mass of 100 GeV. A 7-kilogram liquid-argon dark matter detector, DEAP-1
[130] Direct detection searches for dark matter particles using superheated ... — Direct detection experiments seek to observe the interaction of dark matter particles of cosmic origin with target material in a detector that is usually located in the very clean, low-background environment provided by underground laboratories such as SNOLAB. ... The neutron calibration run demonstrated the detector's ability to identify NRs
[131] (PDF) Dark Matter Signals in the gamma-ray sky - ResearchGate — Detection of gamma rays and cosmic rays from the annihilation or decay of dark matter particles is a promising method for identifying dark matter, understanding its intrinsic properties, and
[132] Evidence of Lensing of the Cosmic Microwave Background by Dark Matter ... — We present evidence of the gravitational lensing of the cosmic microwave background by 10 13 solar mass dark matter halos. Lensing convergence maps from the Atacama Cosmology Telescope Polarimeter (ACTPol) are stacked at the positions of around 12 000 optically selected CMASS galaxies from the SDSS-III/BOSS survey.
[134] Understanding Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation: The Echo of the ... — Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation is more than just a remnant from the universe's infancy; it is a treasure trove of information that continues to play a pivotal role in shaping our understanding of the cosmos. ... This evidence supports the theory that dark matter is a significant component of the universe. Additionally, CMB measurements
[135] Is Dark Energy Getting Weaker? New Evidence Strengthens the Case. — “We are much more certain than last year that this is definitely a thing,” said Seshadri Nadathur, a member of the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) collaboration, the group behind the new result. In isolation, DESI’s 15 million galaxies could match either an evolving dark energy model or the standard theory of cosmology, known as the Lambda-CDM model, which assumes a cosmological constant. (Lambda is the Greek symbol used for Einstein’s cosmological constant, and CDM stands for cold dark matter.) But when DESI researchers also factored in preexisting data on the locations of thousands of supernovas in nearby galaxies, and conditions in the universe’s early days as revealed by remnants of ancient light (called the cosmic microwave background), the combined data sets departed starkly from Lambda-CDM and pointed to an evolution in dark energy.
[144] The dark-PMT: A novel directional light dark matter detector based on ... — In recent times there has been a rise in popularity of dark matter (DM) models which predict sub-GeV DM particles, which could elude detection in most active DM searches based on nuclear-recoil signals. As an example, in the SIMP model the preferred DM mass range is 1 MeV < m χ < 1 GeV. To access the sub-GeV mass range, a promising
[145] [2406.10372] Insights into Dark Matter Direct Detection Experiments ... — The detection of Dark Matter (DM) remains a significant challenge in particle physics. This study exploits advanced machine learning models to improve detection capabilities of liquid xenon time projection chamber experiments, utilizing state-of-the-art transformers alongside traditional methods like Multilayer Perceptrons and Convolutional Neural Networks. We evaluate various data
[146] Scientists propose a new way to search for dark matter — Now, physicists at the Department of Energy’s (DOE) SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory are proposing a new way to look for dark matter using quantum devices, which might be naturally tuned to detect what researchers call thermalized dark matter. With that in mind, Leane and SLAC postdoctoral fellow Anirban Das reached out to Noah Kurinsky, a staff scientist at SLAC and leader of a new lab focused on detecting dark matter with quantum sensors, who had been thinking about a puzzle: Even when superconductors are cooled to absolute zero, removing all of the energy out of the system and creating a stable quantum state, somehow energy reenters and disrupts the quantum state.
[147] Dark Matter Direct Detection | Methods, Advances & Challenges — In recent years, there have been significant advancements in dark matter detection technology. The sensitivity of detectors has improved, allowing for the probing of lower mass dark matter particles. Additionally, new technologies such as the use of silicon and germanium detectors have been developed, which may be more effective at detecting
[150] Indirect detection of dark matter - Wikipedia — Indirect detection of dark matter is a method of searching for dark matter that focuses on looking for the products of dark matter interactions (particularly Standard Model particles) rather than the dark matter itself. Contrastingly, direct detection of dark matter looks for interactions of dark matter directly with atoms. There are experiments aiming to produce dark matter particles
[167] Latest Insights and Developments in Dark Matter Research — Recent advancements in dark matter research, including breakthrough experiments and observational evidence, illustrate the evolving nature of this field and highlight the necessity for interdisciplinary cooperation. Technological innovations play a crucial role in dark matter research as they facilitate new approaches to detecting and understanding this enigmatic substance. Through these models, researchers can explore how dark matter influences the structure and evolution of the universe. This synergy often results in a more holistic understanding of the universe, helping researchers to identify dark matter's behavior and role in galaxy formation. Through collaborative projects, researchers can design experiments that directly test dark matter theories against astronomical data. Understanding Scientific Concepts: Dark matter research involves intricate theories and models.
[170] New Research Unveils Revised Limits on Dark Matter Properties — Each new discovery reveals the intricate tapestry of cosmic phenomena, intertwining dark matter research with broader scientific inquiries. Moreover, the collaboration between institutions, such as the University of Tokyo and the Laboratory of Infrared High-resolution Spectroscopy at Kyoto Sangyo University, underscores the spirit of collective
[171] Pioneering research suggests nature of dark matter is more elusive than ... — The LUX-ZEPLIN Dark Matter Experiment (LZ), based at the Sanford Underground Research Facility in South Dakota, US, has analyzed extensive data which gives unprecedented insights into one of the leading candidates for dark matter known as weakly interacting massive particles, also called WIMPs. The findings, presented on Monday at the TeV Particle Astrophysics 2024 Conference in Chicago, Illinois, and the LIDINE 2024 Conference in São Paulo, Brazil, are nearly five times more sensitive than previous investigations and indicate WIMPs seldom interact with ordinary matter, confirming just how difficult dark matter is to trace. ##### 85% of the matter in the universe is missing: But scientists are getting closer to finding it Aug 31, 2024 ##### Experiment sets new record in search for dark matter Aug 26, 2024 ##### Researchers dig deep underground in hopes of finally observing dark matter Aug 9, 2023
[174] New Research Unveils Revised Limits on Dark Matter Properties — Tokyo, Japan – In the quest to unravel the mysteries of dark matter, a research team led by Associate Professor Wen Yin from Tokyo Metropolitan University has made significant strides using cutting-edge spectrographic technology. With just a mere four hours of data collection, the researchers achieved groundbreaking results, setting unprecedented limits on the lifetime of dark matter particles and shedding light on previously unexplored spectral ranges. By leveraging cutting-edge technology in infrared cosmology, the research addresses fundamental questions surrounding the properties and existence of dark matter. Dark Matter, Infrared Radiation, Light Sources, Galaxies, Theoretical Physics, Zodiacal Light, Observational Data, Quantitative Analysis, Observable Universe, Astronomy, Cosmology, Particle Theory
[176] AI Reveals the Hidden Particle: A Groundbreaking Shift in Dark Matter ... — AI Reveals the Hidden Particle: A Groundbreaking Shift in Dark Matter Exploration - SCI Journal In a groundbreaking advance for dark matter exploration, scientists are leveraging artificial intelligence to reveal the hidden particle that comprises approximately 85% of the universe’s mass, shedding light on the enigmatic components of the cosmos. AI algorithms, notably the Inception model, are revolutionizing our understanding of dark matter interactions. Scientists can only study dark matter through its gravitational effects, leading to a new collaboration between astronomers and artificial intelligence (AI) specialists. Researchers anticipate that the influx of new data from Euclid and other telescopes will empower scientists to dissect dark matter’s fundamental nature further and possibly refine or radically alter existing cosmological models.
[177] AI helps distinguish dark matter from cosmic noise — AI-based approaches like Inception could significantly impact our understanding of what dark matter actually is. As new telescopes gather unprecedented amounts of data, this method will help
[178] James Webb Telescope's New Discoveries Seemingly Contradict Long-Held ... — The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has made new discoveries that challenge the long-standing beliefs about how galaxies formed in the early universe. Instead of confirming the theory that dark matter played a key role in galaxy formation, recent observations show that the oldest galaxies in the universe are larger and brighter than scientists expected. Scientists had expected JWST to find faint, small galaxies from the early universe. However, JWST's observations show that some of the oldest galaxies are unexpectedly large and bright, challenging the idea that dark matter played such a significant role. The large, bright galaxies observed by JWST are in line with the predictions of MOND, not dark matter theory.
[183] Detecting Dark Matter: Exploring WIMP Interactions and Background Noise ... — The paper also displays the latest experimental results from LZ, including limits set on interaction rates of WIMP, and prospects for increasing sensitivity and detection limits. These results show that LUX-ZEPLIN is going to be one of the most promising tools for further understanding dark matter, so one may really say it was worth developing.
[184] Direct Detection of WIMP Dark Matter: Concepts and Status — This article reviews the concepts of direct detection of dark matter in the form of Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) in ultra-sensitive detectors located in underground laboratories, discusses the expected signatures, detector concepts, and how the stringent low-background requirements are achieved.
[188] The modified Newtonian dynamics—MOND and its implications for new ... — For many years already Milgrom's paradigm of modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) has provided an alternative way to interpret observations without appeal to invisible dark matter. MOND had been successful in elucidating economically the dynamics of disc galaxies of all scales, while doing less well for clusters of galaxies; in its original form
[189] James Webb Uncovers New Clues: Could Dark Matter Theory Be Wrong? — The James Webb Space Telescope’s latest findings on ancient galaxies challenge the dark matter theory, suggesting an alternative view that gravity behaves differently than previously thought. The concept of dark matter helps scientists explain why galaxies hold together and why their outer stars rotate faster than they would under Newtonian gravitational theory alone. NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has observed galaxies that seem to challenge this dark matter-based model of gradual growth. Enter MOND, or Modified Newtonian Dynamics—a theory that offers an alternative way to understand galactic behavior without requiring dark matter. If MOND could indeed explain these JWST findings, it would mean galaxies could form and grow without the need for dark matter’s gravitational influence, potentially upending one of the core assumptions of cosmology.
[190] The MOND pages — The Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) s a scientific theory proposed by Moti Milgrom as a solution to the missing mass problem in extragalactic astronomy. Rather than invoking some invisible form of dark matter, it hypothesizes a subtle change to the effective force law at extremely low accelerations ( 10-10 m/s/s).
[210] Dark matter | Definition, Discovery, Distribution, & Facts | Britannica — Dark matter is a component of the universe whose presence is discerned from its gravitational attraction rather than its luminosity. Dark matter makes up 30.1 percent of the matter-energy composition of the universe. Dark matter’s existence was first inferred by Swiss American astronomer Fritz Zwicky, who in 1933 discovered that the mass of all the stars in the Coma cluster of galaxies provided only about 1 percent of the mass needed to keep the galaxies from escaping the cluster’s gravitational pull. Dark matter makes up 30.1 percent of the matter-energy composition of the universe; the rest is dark energy (69.4 percent) and “ordinary” visible matter (0.5 percent). Originally known as the “missing mass,” dark matter’s existence was first inferred by Swiss American astronomer Fritz Zwicky, who in 1933 discovered that the mass of all the stars in the Coma cluster of galaxies provided only about 1 percent of the mass needed to keep the galaxies from escaping the cluster’s gravitational pull.
[212] Dark Matter - Science@NASA — Frequently Asked Questions Mission Timeline Partners Meet the Team Science Dark Energy Dark Matter Exoplanets Large Area Near-Infrared Surveys Observing with Roman General Investigator Program For Scientists Observatory Roman Observatory Wide Field Instrument Coronagraph Instrument Interactive Telescope Diagram News In the News Find an Event Mission Timeline Social Media Media Resources Multimedia Education and Outreach Materials Roman's Flickr Photo Gallery Videos and Animations Roman Observer Video Game Dark Matter Scientists are trying to determine what dark matter is made of, but our current understanding has many gaps. Roman will provide clarity by exploring the structure and distribution of both normal matter and dark matter across space and time. Scientists first suspected dark matter’s existence over 80 years ago when Swiss-American astronomer Fritz Zwicky observed that galaxies in the Coma cluster were moving so quickly they should have been flung away into space – yet they remained gravitationally bound to the cluster by unseen matter. Roman’s enormous surveys will provide a comprehensive look at the distribution of galaxies and galaxy clusters across the universe in the most detailed dark matter studies ever undertaken, thanks to dark matter’s gravitational effects. The mission will measure the locations and quantities of both normal matter and dark matter in hundreds of millions of galaxies.
[213] What Is Dark Matter? | Universe, Gravity, Galaxies, & Facts - Britannica — What Is Dark Matter? | Universe, Gravity, Galaxies, & Facts | Britannica World History Ask the Chatbot Games & Quizzes History & Society Science & Tech Biographies Animals & Nature Geography & Travel Arts & Culture ProCon Money Videos What Is Dark Matter? What Is Dark Matter? https://www.britannica.com/science/What-is-Dark-Matter The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Last Updated: Mar 4, 2025 • Article History Dark MatterLearn how dark matter is detectable through its gravitational effects.(more) The gravitational influence of dark matter extends beyond individual galaxies.
[214] The impact of the dark matter on galaxy formation - IOPscience — Abstract Contemporarily, dark matter exerts dominant impacts on galaxy formation, which is the spine bone of the galaxy. Herein, we investigate the attraction effect of initial dark matter distribution on the normal matter (hydrogen and other gases), which will form the dark matter halos.
[215] PDF — Fortunately, dark matter possesses gravity, being one of the primary sources of gravitational force in the universe, significantly influencing the structure and dynamical behavior of celestial systems like galaxies and galaxy clusters. Through merging and accretion, dark matter halos grow and accumulate mass, thereby influencing star formation rates, gas distribution, and the dynamical states within galaxies. 5.1 Simulations and Modeling The numerical simulation of galaxy formation using dark matter is an important field in cosmology, which relies on complex computer simulations to understand and predict the formation and evolution of large-scale structures in the universe, such as galaxies, galaxy clusters, etc.
[216] Influence of Interactions Between Dark Energy and Dark Matter in Galaxy ... — INFLUENCE OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN DARK ENERGY AND DARK MATTER IN GALAXY FORMATION This paper investigates the potential impact of interactions between dark matter and dark energy on galaxy formation, challenging the conventional ΛCDM model. Dark matter drives cosmic structure formation through gravitational effects, while dark energy accelerates universal expansion. Observational data from the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), Large-Scale Structure (LSS), and supernovae inform our understanding of dark matter distribution, dark energy effects, and potential interactions. Influence of Interactions Between Dark Energy and Dark Matter in Galaxy Formation Keywords - Dark Energy, Dark Matter, Galaxy Formation, Cosmic Microwave Background(CMB), ΛCDM model. Influence of Interactions Between Dark Energy and Dark Matter in Galaxy Formation Influence of Interactions Between Dark Energy and Dark Matter in Galaxy Formation
[218] How dark matter affects the evolution of galaxies — Home » News » Science » How dark matter affects the evolution of galaxies Scientists are studying the distribution of stars and dark matter in galaxies. Stars and dark matter in the galaxy. To study the influence of dark matter, the team of astronomers focused on the difference between the cluster of stars in the galaxy and the mass that can be calculated from its rotation, called the total dynamic mass. “We have seen that in galaxies with equal masses of stars, their stellar populations behave differently depending on whether the halo has more, or less dark matter, in other words, the evolution of a galaxy, from its formation until the present time is modified by the halo in which it is contained.
[220] The Role of Dark Matter in Galaxy Formation and Evolution — Dark matter plays a balancing role by regulating how energy from these processes is distributed. It helps maintain the stability of galaxies, preventing them from becoming too chaotic.
[221] Top Reasons Why Dark Matter is Important For Us. — Comprising about 27% of the universe's mass-energy content, dark matter plays a crucial role in the formation and structure of galaxies. Despite its importance, much about dark matter remains unknown. Why Dark Matter is Important Dark Matter and Gravitational Effects. One of the primary reasons dark matter is significant is due to its
[222] Why is Dark Matter Important? | Dark Matter - theastrophysics.com — Without dark matter, the observed rotational speeds of galaxies and the behavior of galaxy clusters cannot be explained by the gravitational pull of visible matter alone. Understanding dark matter is crucial for cosmology, as it plays a key role in the formation and evolution of structures in the universe.
[224] What Is Dark Matter? An Introduction to One of Science's Biggest Mysteries — What Is Dark Matter? Dark matter is one of the universe’s most fascinating mysteries. In this article, we’ll dive into what dark matter is, why scientists are so eager to study it, and how understanding it could reveal new insights about the cosmos. What Is Dark Matter Made Of? How Scientists Are Searching for Dark Matter Just as scientists discovered quantum mechanics and relativity, discovering the true nature of dark matter might revolutionize our understanding of fundamental science. Dark matter may be one of science’s greatest mysteries, but it’s also one of the most thrilling. As scientists continue to search for answers, we may one day unlock the secrets of dark matter, reshaping our understanding of the cosmos and perhaps revealing the unseen forces that shape everything around us.
[225] What Is Dark Matter? | NASA Space Place - NASA Science for Kids — The Short Answer: Dark matter is stuff in space that has gravity, but it is invisible and isn’t like anything else we know about. Dark matter makes up about 27% of the universe. That something is dark matter. Dark matter is that invisible glue that keeps stars, dust, and gas together in a galaxy. Because dark matter does not emit, absorb, or reflect light, we mostly know it is there because of its gravitational pull on visible matter in space.
[234] Dark matter - CERN — They are rotating with such speed that the gravity generated by their observable matter could not possibly hold them together; they should have torn themselves apart long ago. This strange and unknown matter was called “dark matter” since it is not visible. This means it does not absorb, reflect or emit light, making it extremely hard to spot. Dark matter seems to outweigh visible matter roughly six to one, making up about 27% of the universe.